| We may define good teaching as instruction | | | | Use active learning in class |
| that leads to effective learning, which in | | | | |
| turn means thorough and lasting acquisition | | | | Most students cannot stay focused throughout |
| of the knowledge, skills, and values the | | | | a lecture. After about 10 minutes their |
| instructor or the institution has set out to | | | | attention begins to drift, first for brief |
| impart. | | | | moments and then for longer intervals, and by |
| | | | the end of the lecture they are taking in |
| The education literature presents a variety | | | | very little and retaining less. A classroom |
| of good teaching strategies and research | | | | research study showed that immediately after |
| studies that validate them (Campbell and | | | | a lecture students recalled 70% of the |
| Smith 1997; Johnson et al. 1998; McKeachie | | | | information presented in the first ten |
| 1999). | | | | minutes and only 20% of that from the last |
| | | | ten minutes (McKeachie 1999). |
| In the sections that follow, we describe | | | | |
| several strategies known to be particularly | | | | Students' attention can be maintained |
| effective. | | | | throughout a class session by periodically |
| | | | giving them something to do. Many different |
| Write instructional objectives. | | | | activities can serve this purpose (Bonwell |
| | | | and Eison 1991; Brent and Felder 1992; Felder |
| Instructional objectives are statements of | | | | 1994a; Johnson et al. 1998; Meyers and Jones |
| specific observable actions that students | | | | 1993), of which the most common is the |
| should be able to perform if they have | | | | small-group exercise. At some point during a |
| mastered the content and skills the | | | | class period, the instructor tells the |
| instructor has attempted to teach (Gronlund | | | | students to get into groups of two or three |
| 1991; Brent and Felder 1997). An | | | | and arbitrarily designates a recorder (the |
| instructional objective has one of the | | | | second student from the left, the student |
| following stems: | | | | born closest to the university, any student |
| | | | who has not yet been a recorder that week). |
| • At the end of this [course, chapter, | | | | When the groups are in place, the instructor |
| week, lecture], the student should be able to | | | | asks a question or poses a short problem and |
| *** | | | | instructs the groups to come up with a |
| | | | response, telling them that only the recorder |
| • To do well on the next exam, the | | | | is allowed to write but any team member may |
| student should be able to ***where *** is a | | | | be called on to give the response. After a |
| phrase that begins with an action verb (e.g., | | | | suitable period has elapsed (which may be as |
| list, calculate, solve, estimate, describe, | | | | short as 30 seconds or as long as 5 |
| explain, paraphrase, interpret, predict, | | | | minutes-shorter is generally better), the |
| model, design, optimize,…). The outcome | | | | instructor randomly calls on one or more |
| of the specified action must be directly | | | | students or teams to present their solutions. |
| observable by the instructor: words like | | | | Calling on students rather than asking for |
| "learn," "know," "understand," and | | | | volunteers is essential. If the students know |
| "appreciate," while important, do not | | | | that someone else will eventually supply the |
| qualify. | | | | answer, many will not even bother to think |
| | | | about the question. |
| Following are illustrative phrases that might | | | | |
| be attached to the stem of an instructional | | | | Active learning exercises may address a |
| objective, grouped in six categories | | | | variety of objectives. Some examples follow. |
| according to the levels of thinking they | | | | |
| require. | | | | • Recalling prior material. The |
| | | | students may be given one minute to list as |
| 1. Knowledge (repeating verbatim): list [the | | | | many points as they can recall about the |
| first five books of the Old Testament]; state | | | | previous lecture or about a specific topic |
| [the steps in the procedure for calibrating a | | | | covered in an assigned reading. |
| gas chromatograph]. | | | | |
| | | | • Responding to questions. Any |
| 2. Comprehension (demonstrating understanding | | | | questions an instructor would normally ask in |
| of terms and concepts): explain [in your own | | | | class can be directed to groups. In most |
| words the concept of phototropism]; | | | | classes-especially large ones-very few |
| paraphrase [Section 3.8 of the text]. | | | | students are willing to volunteer answers to |
| | | | questions, even if they know the answers. |
| 3. Application (solving problems): calculate | | | | When the questions are directed to small |
| [the probability that two sample means will | | | | groups, most students will attempt to come up |
| differ by more than 5%]; solve [Problem 17 in | | | | with answers and the instructor will get as |
| Chapter 5 of the text]. | | | | many responses as he or she wants. |
| | | | |
| 4. Analysis (breaking things down into their | | | | • Problem solving. A large problem can |
| elements, formulating theoretical | | | | always be broken into a series of steps, such |
| explanations or mathematical or logical | | | | as paraphrasing the problem statement, |
| models for observed phenomena): derive | | | | sketching a schematic or flow chart, |
| [Poiseuille's law for laminar Newtonian flow | | | | predicting a solution, writing the relevant |
| from a force balance]; simulate [a sewage | | | | equations, solving them or outlining a |
| treatment plant for a city, given population | | | | solution procedure, and checking and/or |
| demographics and waste emission data from | | | | interpreting the solution. When working |
| local manufacturing plants]. | | | | through a problem in class, the instructor |
| | | | may complete some steps and ask the student |
| 5. Synthesis (creating something, combining | | | | groups to attempt others. The groups should |
| elements in novel ways): design [an | | | | generally be given enough time to think about |
| elementary school playground given | | | | what they have been asked to do and begin |
| demographic information about the school and | | | | formulating a response but not necessarily |
| budget constraints]; make up [a homework | | | | enough to reach closure. |
| problem involving material covered in class | | | | |
| this week]. | | | | • Explaining written material. TAPPS |
| | | | (thinking-aloud pair problem solving) is a |
| 6. Evaluation (choosing from among | | | | powerful activity for helping students |
| alternatives): determine [which of several | | | | understand a body of material. The students |
| versions of an essay is better, and explain | | | | are put in pairs and given a text passage or |
| your reasoning]; select [from among available | | | | a worked-out derivation or problem solution. |
| options for expanding production capacity, | | | | An arbitrarily designated member of each pair |
| and justify your choice]. | | | | explains each statement or calculation, and |
| | | | the explainer's partner asks for |
| The six given categories are the cognitive | | | | clarification if anything is unclear, giving |
| domain levels of Bloom's Taxonomy of | | | | hints if necessary. After about five minutes, |
| Educational Objectives (Bloom 1984). The last | | | | the instructor calls on one or two pairs to |
| three categories--synthesis, analysis, and | | | | summarize their explanations up to a point in |
| evaluation--are often referred to as the | | | | the text, and the students reverse roles |
| "higher level thinking skills." | | | | within their pairs and continue from that |
| | | | point. |
| Well-formulated instructional objectives can | | | | |
| help instructors prepare lecture and | | | | • Analytical, critical, and creative |
| assignment schedules and facilitate | | | | thinking. The students may be asked to list |
| construction of in-class activities, | | | | assumptions, problems, errors, or ethical |
| out-of-class assignments, and tests. Perhaps | | | | dilemmas in a case study or design; explain a |
| the greatest benefit comes when the | | | | technical concept in jargon-free terms; find |
| objectives cover all of the content and | | | | the logical flaw in an argument; predict the |
| skills the instructor wishes to teach and | | | | outcome of an experiment or explain an |
| they are handed out as study guides prior to | | | | observed outcome in terms of course concepts; |
| examinations. The more explicitly students | | | | or choose from among alternative answers or |
| know what is expected of them, the more | | | | designs or models or strategies and justify |
| likely they will be to meet the expectations. | | | | the quality. |
| | | | |